The history of feminism in Greece begins at the end of the 19th century when some educated women of the Greek bourgeoisie decided to take action and help women become visible in public life through their discourse, their ideas, their demand for equality and their practical solidarity with working class women.
The start of the feminist movement in Greece was marked by the founding of the newspaper Ladies’ Journal (Greek: Ephemeris ton kyrion) in 1887, published by women and addressed to the middle-class women of the new Greek state and the Greek diaspora. The newspaper’s publisher and editor-in-chief was journalist and writer Kalliroi Parren, while the editorial team included Agathoniki Antoniadou, Sappho Leontias, Dr. Anthi Vassiliadou, Florentia Fountoukli and Krystallia Chrysovergi, all of who had knowledge of the struggles for the women’s cause in Europe and overseas.
The early demands of the feminist movement
The first demands of Greek feminists were related to women’s right to education and professional training, especially for working-class women. At the initiative of the movement, and Kalliroi Parren in particular, “Sunday schools” were founded from 1890 in most Greek cities, in order to provide an education for the girls who worked and could not go to school. From 1896 onwards, “professional and housekeeping schools” were founded, with the aim of linking education with employment.
Indeed, during the interwar period women entered the labor market en masse, both as factory and freelance workers, and also in public services; this allowed them to stop depending exclusively on the income of male family members as well as to become more aware of the social restrictions and inequitable conditions they faced in these new fields.
The first feminists also demanded some civil rights so that women could manage their own property, participate in family councils and assume custody of their children.
The first legal reforms regarding women in the workforce and the educational system were introduced in 1910 by Eleftherios Venizelos’ Liberal Party government. From 1912, women were prohibited by law from working night shifts and from participating in heavy and unhealthy occupations. The first maternity protection measures were also introduced, providing for a maternity leave of a few weeks. At the same time, schools, educational institutes and high schools for girls were established and the number of female students increased. The presence of women was especially felt in certain professions: teachers, switchboard operators, typists, cashiers, nurses, midwives, doctors, pediatricians and journalists.
The right to vote in the 1930s and 1950s
It wasn’t until 1920 that the feminist movement in Greece began to claim civil rights for women, with the founding of the League for Women’s Rights by Avra Theodoropoulou, wife of Spyros Theodoropoulos, lawyer and adviser of Eleftherios Venizelos. The League, affiliated to the International Alliance of Women, was the first exclusively feminist organization in Greece, uniting all feminists in the common fight for women’s suffrage. The brochure “The Women’s Struggle”, written in the “demotic” (vernacular) language, reflected the positions of the League for Women’s Rights and its demands.
In February 1930, under pressure from the women’s movement, political authorities granted women the right to vote in municipal elections under the following conditions: they to be literate and over the age of 30. The municipal elections in 1932 marked the first time Greek women participated in elections, although only a few thousands would actually make use of their right at the time.
During the country’s occupation by the Axis powers, women actively participated in resistance groups, especially within the National Liberation Front (EAM). In April 1944, at the elections for the National Council, a legislative body set up by the National Liberation Front resistance movement, women over 18 voted for the first time, on a national level.
After Greece’s liberation, women’s associations resumed their activities and new associations were created in the tradition of the EAM, such as the Panhellenic Democratic Union of Women. Peace and the protection of mothers and children became the main demands of the women’s movement.
On the eve of the Greek Civil War (1946-1949), all left-wing women’s groups were declared illegal. During the civil war, women were present on both sides, although in different circumstances. The participation of women in the Democratic Army allowed, among other things, to test societal norms and stereotypes, as well as to demonstrate their persistence.
Greek women gained full electoral rights on June 7, 1952 under Law 2151, passed by the centrist alliance government of Nikolaos Plastiras. Although later that year national elections took place in Greece, women’s right to vote was not yet exercised given that electoral rolls had not been updated. However, many did vote at local by-elections that took place in 1953. It was at these by-elections that the first Greek woman member of parliament was elected: it was Eleni Skoura, member of the conservative “Greek Rally” party. At the 1956 general elections all adult Greek women could at last participate in elections on a national level.
The fall of the military dictatorship and “neo-feminism”
During the seven-years military dictatorship in Greece (1967-1974), the functioning of women’s organizations was prohibited and many of their archives were destroyed. Women played an important role in resistance organizations in Greece and abroad, while many were imprisoned and exiled.
After the fall of the military junta and during the period of transition to democracy (Metapolitefsi), new collective subjects emerge in the public sphere with a strong claim to political visibility. Feminists of the time attempted to highlight the political character of gender hierarchy, both in the private and public spheres, denouncing male domination as the underlying condition of all social phenomena. The slogan “The personal is political” best sums up the importance given to highlighting the social and political aspect of relations between men and women. Many women were involved in movements that denounced gender-based discriminations, demanded gender equality and sought to ensure women’s presence in politics.
The 1975 Constitution lays the foundation for gender equality. In article 4, par. 1 and 2, it is stated that: “All Greeks are equal before the law. Greek men and women have the same rights and obligations”. The state begins to recognize feminist issues by creating institutions responsible for gender equality and attempts to reduce institutional discrimination against women. The constitutional recognition of equality led to subsequent changes in family law, labor law, and laws on education, social security, maternity, health, and crime.
After the restoration of democracy, the structure of the women’s movement diversified. The movement of “neo-feminism” focused its efforts on issues including domestic violence, legalization of abortion, sexuality, family and work.
Women’s organizations, whose functioning had been interrupted by the military junta, were re-established. The “Greek League for Women’s Rights” is an example: it was re-founded in 1974 and was strongly involved in women’s activism during the period of 1974-1990. It also played a crucial role in the establishment of the new institutional framework on gender equality.
At the same time, national women’s organizations were created in relation to or within political parties. This category includes three major national women’s organizations: the Union of Greek Women (EGE) politically linked to PASOK, the Democratic Women’s Movement (KDG) politically linked to the Eurocommunist party of Greece and the Federation of Greek Women (OGE) linked to the Communist Party of Greece (KKE). During that same period youth movements and trade unions gradually established women’s sections or committees focusing on issues related to working women.
Family law was radically reformed in 1982-1983, introducing gender equality, the abolition of dowry and the authority of the father, the decriminalization of adultery and the right to have children outside of marriage. The decriminalization of abortion was also introduced in 1986. In 1984, Greece also enacted Law 1414/1984 against employment discrimination.
Feminism today
The feminist movement in Greece follows the general trends in that immerge in the Western world. Third-wave feminism (beginning in the 1990s) redefined the movement focusing on the aspects of diversity and inclusivity, and addressing issues such as intersectionality, sex positivity and the LGBTQ+ agenda.
Fourth-wave feminism, believed to have emerged around 2012, has further sought to raise awareness on gendered norms and systemic discrimination, placing emphasis on the empowerment of women and giving voice to survivors of trafficking and of domestic, gender-based and sexual violence. Feminism today is concerned with issues that range from the needs of women affected by armed conflict to the gender pay gap, gender stereotypes, unrealistic beauty standards and casual sexism.
N.M. (Based on the original article which appeared on GrèceHebdo; Intro photo: Kalliroi Parren (1859-1940), from the Archives of “Lyceum Club of Greek Women”)
TAGS: MODERN GREEK HISTORY | WOMEN & GENDER
